What are the different ways in which glucose is oxidised to provide energy in various organisms?

This is the most efficient way of oxidizing glucose, used by many eukaryotic organismsEukaryotic organisms are complex cells or organisms with cells that contain a nucleus enclosed within membranes. Unlike prokaryotes, eukaryotes have well-organized cells with distinct organelles, such as mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum. This group includes animals, plants, fungi, and protists, showcasing a vast diversity in form and function., including humans.

It occurs in the presence of oxygen and involves three main stages: glycolysis (in the cytoplasm), the Krebs cycle (in the mitochondria), and oxidative phosphorylation (across the mitochondrial membrane).
Aerobic respiration converts one molecule of glucose into approximately 36-38 molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell.

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen. It is less efficient than aerobic respiration, producing only a fraction of the ATP that aerobic respiration does.
It also starts with glycolysis, but the pyruvate produced is then converted into different end products depending on the organism.
In some microorganisms, like certain bacteria, this can involve the reduction of substances other than oxygen, such as sulfate or nitrate, in a process known as anaerobic respiration or fermentation.

A special type of anaerobic respiration, fermentation is used by many bacteria, yeasts, and some muscle cells in animals when oxygen is scarce.

There are two main types of fermentation:
Alcoholic Fermentation: Used by yeasts and some types of bacteria, converting glucose into ethanol, carbon dioxide, and a small amount of ATP.
Lactic Acid Fermentation: Occurs in some bacteria and animal cells (like muscle cells during intense exercise), where pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid, producing a small amount of ATP.

Although not a complete oxidation of glucose, glycolysis is a critical initial step in both aerobic and anaerobic pathways.
It breaks down glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, with a net production of two ATP molecules and two NADH molecules.

This is an alternative pathway to glycolysis, primarily for the generation of NADPH and the synthesis of ribose-5-phosphate (a precursor for the synthesis of nucleotides).
While it does not produce ATP directly, it plays a role in cellular processes that require reducing power (from NADPH) and is important in certain tissues and organisms.

The pathway chosen for the oxidation of glucose largely depends on the organism’s type, its cellular structures, and the availability of oxygen. Aerobic respiration is preferred when oxygen is available due to its high energy yield, while anaerobic pathways are utilized in low-oxygen environments or by organisms that lack the complex cellular machinery for aerobic respiration.

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